Remote Sensing Reveals Land Cover Dynamics at SIDCUL Industrial Estate, Haridwar: A Sacred City in the Himalayan Foothills, India (2018–2023)

Abstract

This study employs Sentinel-2 satellite imagery and spectral indices (NDVI, MNDWI, NDBI) to quantify land cover changes in Haridwar, India, between 2018 and 2023. Using Google Earth Engine, we computed index differences and classified land cover into five categories: Barren, Sparse Vegetation, Dense Vegetation, Water, and Built-up. Results indicate a 5.5% expansion in built-up areas (+3.68 km2), a 2.9% decline in dense vegetation (−1.36 km2), and minor increases in water bodies (+14.1%) and barren land (+4.3%). These changes reflect urbanization pressures near critical Himalayan ecosystems, providing a baseline for sustainable land management.